Mejora de la dureza mental en halteristas universitarios mediante una intervención con biorretroalimentación basada en el modelo IZOF / Melhoria da resistência mental em halterofilistas universitários através de uma intervenção de biofeedback baseada no modelo IZOF / Mental toughness improvement in college weightlifters through an intervention based on the IZOF model

La intervención psicológica en el contexto del deporte ha intentado detectar un modelo que pueda predecir el máximo rendimiento deportivo; los estudios en donde se utilizan programas de intervención psicológica en las fases competitivas han mostrado cierta influencia en la mejora de habilidades psicológicas específicas para la práctica deportiva. El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo evaluar el efecto de un programa de control de activación basado en la Zona Individual de Funcionamiento Óptimo (IZOF), sobre los niveles de dureza mental en deportistas universitarios de halterofilia. La muestra constó de tres participantes, seleccionados por conveniencia. Se utilizó un diseño preexperimental de pretest-postest con un grupo único. Se aplicaron el Inventario Psicológico de Ejecución Deportiva y el Inventario de Ansiedad Estado Competitiva-2RD, este último de manera retrospectiva considerando tres momentos deportivos: a) Peor Rendimiento; b) Rendimiento Regular; c) Mejor Rendimiento; y uno de forma prospectiva, d) Post-intervención. Se registro la frecuencia cardiaca como herramienta para determinar la IZOF. El programa de intervención constó de 17 sesiones para la enseñanza y aplicación técnicas de control de activación. Se analizaron las variables psicológicas mediante la prueba T de Wilcoxon y el mínimo cambio apreciable, mientras que se obtuvieron medias para la frecuencia cardiaca para evaluar su comportamiento durante las ejecuciones de rendimiento. Los resultados posteriores a la intervención muestran cambios positivos en los niveles de ansiedad y autoconfianza, así como de las habilidades psicológicas para la práctica deportiva, y, la obtención y mantenimiento de la IZOF en los participantes. (AU)

Psychological intervention in the sports context has tried to detect a model that can predict maximum sports performance. Studies in which psychological intervention programs were used in the competitive phases have shown some influence in the improvement of specific psychological skills for sports practice. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of an activation control program based on the Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) on the mental toughness levels in university weightlifting athletes. The sample was of three participants, selected by convenience. A pre-experimental pretest-posttest design with a single group was used. The Psychological Inventory of Sport Performance and Inventory of Competitive State Anxiety-2RD (CSAI-2R) questionnaires were applied, the CSAI-2R was responded to retrospectively considering three different sporting moments: a)Worst Performance; b) Regular Performance; c) Best Performance; and, one prospectively after intervention: d) Treatment Performance. Heart rate recording was used as a tool to determine the IZOF. The intervention program consisted of 17 sessions for the teaching and application of activation control techniques. Psychological variables were analyzed through a Wilcoxon test and the smallest worthwhile change, whilst heart rate means were obtained to evaluate their behavior throughout the performance executions. Post-intervention results show positive changes in anxiety and self-confidence levels as well as in the psychological skills for sports practice, and the attainment and maintenance of IZOF in the participants. (AU)

A intervenção psicológica no contexto do desporto tentou detectar um modelo que pode prever o máximo desempenho desportivo. Estudos nos quais são utilizados programas de intervenção psicológica nas fases competitivas mostraram uma certa influência na melhoria de competências psicológicas específicas para a prática desportiva. O objectivo do presente estudo foi avaliar o efeito da utilização de um programa de controlo de activação baseado na Zona Ótima de Funcioamento Individual(IZOF) sobre os níveis de resistência mental em atletas de halterofilismo universitários. A amostra consistiu em três participantes, seleccionados de forma não-probabilística por conveniência. Foi utilizado um desenho pré-experimental de pré-teste-pós-teste com um único grupo. Foram aplicados os seguintes questionários: 1) Inventário Psicológico do Desempenho Desportivo; e 2) Inventário da Ansiedade do Estado Competitivo-2RD, este último considerando retrospectivamente três momentos desportivos diferentes: a) pior desempenho; b) desempenho médio; c) melhor desempenho. Finalmente, um registo do ritmo cardíaco como ferramenta para determinar o IZOF. O programa de intervenção consistiu em 17 sessões para o ensino e aplicação de técnicas de controlo de activação. Os dados obtidos foram analisados utilizando um teste Wilcoxon para contrastar as diferenças entre as aplicações CSAI2-RD e IPED. Finalmente, a menor alteração mensurável (SWC) foi utilizada para detectar variações nas pontuações dos testes. Os resultados pós-intervenção mostram um aumento de algumas das capacidades psicológicas para a prática desportiva, e a obtenção e manutenção do IZOF em alguns participantes. (AU)

Prevalence, Magnitude, and Methods of Weight Cutting Used by World Class Powerlifters.

ABSTRACT: Kwan, K and Helms, E. Prevalence, magnitude, and methods of weight cutting used by world class powerlifters. J Strength Cond Res 36(4): 998-1002, 2022-Powerlifters compete in the squat, bench press, and deadlift, with winners determined by the highest 3-lift total in each weight class. As a weight class-based sport, athletes often compete in classes lower than their habitual weight, using various strategies to make weight. This study's purpose was to examine weight cutting prevalence, magnitude, and methods among 42 male and 22 female powerlifters (25 ± 8 years old; 4 ± 2.2 years of competitive experience) competing at the 2018 International Powerlifting Federation classic world championship. The lifters, 83% of whom cut weight losing an average 2.9 ± 4.3% of body mass, completed a previously validated weight cutting questionnaire. The most frequently used weight cutting methods were gradual dieting (42.18%, 31.25%), fluid restriction after fluid loading (32.8%, 34.4%), restricting fluid ingestion without fluid loading (23.4%, 9.4%), fasting (15.6%, 18.7%), increased activity (9.4%, 24.4%), laxatives (9.4%, 18.7%), sauna (7.8%, 6.3%), diuretics (7.8%, 6.3%), skipping meals (4.7%, 21.9%), and wearing rubber suits (1.6%, 2.6%). Most lifters experienced negative changes in psychological state, with only 9% reporting never experiencing any negative effect on psychological state across the 5 states measured. Lifters reported experiencing fatigue (15.6%, 45.3%), anger (3.2%, 26.6%), feelings of isolation (4.7%, 12.5%), and anxiety (14.1%, 35.95%), and 11 of the 12 lifters who reported a perceived decrement in training performance performed weight cutting. Both weight cutting methods and negative psychological changes experienced were reported as always, sometimes. Therefore, it is vital to provide specific recommendations based on scientific research to improve the efficacy and safety of making weight while minimizing performance decrements.

The role of age in the physiological adaptations and psychological responses in bikini-physique competitor contest preparation: a case series.

The increased popularity of the bikini-physique competitions has not translated to greater research identifying the influence of age on adaptations during contest preparation. The purpose of this case series was to observe how age may influence the adaptations normally seen during preparation and the exploration of newer protocols to address adaptations more relative to the judging standards. Over a 16-week pre-contest preparation, a 32-y bikini competitor (BC) and 44-y master's bikini competitor (MBC) visited the laboratory bi-weekly to observe changes in body fat mass (BF), lean body mass (LBM), bone mineral density (BMD), total body water (TBW); exploratory measures of deltoid cross-sectional area (DeltCSA), gluteus maximus muscle thickness (GMMT), and subcutaneous adipose tissue thickness (SAT); reproductive hormones estradiol (E2), luteinizing hormone (LH), and energy balance hormones triiodothyronine (T3), leptin and ghrelin; hydration status during contest preparation and the week of competition; resting metabolic rate (RMR); psychometric data related to perceived anxiety, stress, and body image were assessed. No differences between BC and MBC were observed in BF, LBM, BMD, and TBW. Both competitors showed a small loss in LBM. Both BC and MBC showed a contrasting increase in DeltCSA and a loss in GMMT. MBC showed to be slightly more dehydrated (1.025 vs 1.021 g·mL- 1) than BC. Both competitors maintained a euhydration status the day of the competition. No time differences were found between BC and MBC during RMR. BC showed a higher mean difference RMR compared to MBC (2.66 ± 0.75 kcal·kgLBM- 1·d- 1). MBC showed a higher mean difference in LH concentration (84.6 ± 6.01 IU·L- 1), which may be explained by perimenopausal status. MBC had a higher mean difference concentration of leptin (2.51 ± 0.24 ng·mL- 1·kgFM- 1), which was unperturbed by fat loss may be interrelated LH. BC self-reported a higher mean energy intake (15.07 ± 3.43 kcal·kgLBM- 1·d- 1) and higher aerobic training volume (93.26 ± 40.68 min·d). BC and MBC showed similar composition changes, slightly differing metabolic rates, and differing hormonal LH and leptin responses. This finding is in contrast to previous work showing both LH inhibition and leptin diurnal disturbance in younger, female athletes with low energy availability. The exploratory measures may have some benefit for bikini-physique competitors related to the judging criteria. Age did not seem to play a role in contest preparation adaptations.

Anabolic androgenic steroids, antisocial personality traits, aggression and violence.

BACKGROUND: Anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) use is associated with a wide range of adverse physical, psychological and social effects. While some experience few side effects, others might experience severe consequences. Aggression and violence are among the often-cited side effects associated with high-dose AAS use; however, most of the knowledge is generated from subgroups, such as prison populations. A likely hypothesis is that AAS use is associated with aggression and violence, but that these associations are complex and may be mediated by several factors, such as substance use, AAS dependence and personality traits. METHODS: In the present study, we tested this hypothesis by examining the relations between long-term AAS use and AAS dependence, aggression, interpersonal violence and potential mediating factors in a sample of male AAS exposed and non-exposed weightlifting controls (WLC), using self-report questionnaires. Based upon AAS dependence criteria, a sample of male AAS users and WLC (N = 139) were stratified into three groups: WLC (n = 66), AAS dependents (n = 41) and AAS non-dependents (n = 32). RESULTS: The results demonstrate that AAS dependents reported significantly higher levels of aggression compared to WLC and AAS non-dependents. While interpersonal violence was reported in all three groups, the highest percentage was found in the AAS dependent group. CONCLUSION: In summary, our study confirms a link between AAS use, aggression and violence in a weightlifting population. However, the association is foremost seen in AAS dependent users and it seems that antisocial personality traits are an important mediator.

"Lift Big-Get Big": The Impact of Images of Hyper-Muscular Bodies and Training Information.

Purpose: It has been suggested that the media influence beliefs regarding ideal body appearance and drive for muscularity whilst also offering recommendations for achieving this; most commonly heavy load free weight resistance training (RT). However, evidence for media effects are inconsistent in the literature. This study investigated this "lift big-get big" culture and effects of imagery on males' beliefs regarding RT. Method: An online survey was conducted with male participants (N = 110) randomized to different images (hyper-muscular/lean/control) and RT information ("lift big-get big"/"evidence based RT"/control). Results: Descriptive data suggested belief in necessity of heavy loads and free weights was pervasive. There was a small significant effect of condition for multivariate analysis of beliefs regarding RT. Univariate analyses showed significant effects of condition regarding the importance of free weights and heavy loads for strength, and free weights for hypertrophy. Small to moderate effects were found comparing "evidence-based RT" with a hyper-muscular physique to "lift big-get big" conditions with both hyper-muscular and lean physiques, the latter more likely to agree free weights and heavy loads are necessary for strength. A small effect was found comparing "lift big-get big" conditions with both hyper-muscular and lean physiques and the control condition, the former more likely to agree free weights are necessary for hypertrophy. Conclusions: Although hyper-muscular bodies alone did not influence RT beliefs, new information, i.e., "evidence-based RT" combined with a hyper-muscular physique had a small effect. The "lift big-get big" culture is perhaps pervasive enough that most conditions merely reinforced existing beliefs.

Parasympathetic Nervous Activity Responses to Different Resistance Training Systems.

The assessment of parasympathetic nervous activity and psychophysiological responses infers the stress imposed by different resistance training systems. Therefore, we compare the effects of different sets configurations, with similar volume (~60 repetitions), on heart rate variability indices and internal training load. Twenty-nine resistance-trained adults completed the following conditions: traditional without and with muscle failure, inter-repetition rest, and rest-pause in the parallel squat. The heart rate variability indices (time-domain) were measured before and 30 min after each condition. The internal training load was obtained through the session-rating of perceived exertion method. Except for inter-repetition rest, all conditions reduced the heart rate variability indices after the session (P<0.05), and the rest-pause triggered the higher reductions (≤-46.7%). The internal training load was higher in the rest-pause (≤68.9%). Our results suggest that rest-pause configuration leads to more considerable disruption of the parasympathetic nervous activity and higher internal training load in trained adults. In contrast, inter-repetition rest allows lower autonomic and psychophysiological stress.

Theory of mind in users of anabolic androgenic steroids.

RATIONALE: Anabolic androgenic steroids are used to improve physical performance or increase lean muscle mass. About one-third of users develop a dependency syndrome, which is characterized by elevated rates of psychopathology, cognitive impairments, and aggressive and antisocial behaviors. The mechanisms behind these intra- and interpersonal problems are not known. OBJECTIVE: To examine theory of mind (ToM), i.e., the ability to infer the mental state of others, in users of anabolic androgenic steroids. Reduced ToM may be one factor underlying the interpersonal problems that have been reported with prolonged use of anabolic androgenic steroids. METHODS: The Movie for the Assessment of Social Cognition (MASC) was used to assess ToM. Study participants were male/female weightlifters who used anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS, n = 34/9), who were dependent on anabolic androgenic steroids (AASdep, n = 44/7), and a non-using weightlifting comparison group (WLC, n = 69/16). RESULTS: Analyses of variance showed that the AASdep group performed significantly worse than the WLC group, for all MASC measures (total ToM, cognitive ToM, affective ToM, overmentalizing/undermentalizing errors). Sex and sex x group interaction effects were non-significant. CONCLUSIONS: Male and female weightlifters who were dependent on anabolic androgenic steroids had impaired ToM. Their reduced social cognition may be one contributing factor to the elevated rates of antisocial behavior reported in this population.

Anabolic androgenic steroid dependence is associated with executive dysfunction.

BACKGROUND: Anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) dependence is associated with a high prevalence of intra- and interpersonal problems, hence it is central to identify cognitive factors related to the development and maintenance of dependence. METHODS: The study explores executive functions (EFs) in a sample of 174 male weightlifters, divided into three groups; 1) AAS dependents; n = 58, 2) AAS non-dependents; n = 38 and 3) AAS non-users; n = 78, using a targeted battery of neuropsychological (NP) tests, and self-report questionnaires assessing EFs in everyday life, ADHD symptoms and psychological distress. RESULTS: Multivariate analysis of variance showed significant between-group differences on several EFs, including working memory [F (2, 169) = 13.79, p < .001, ηp² = 0.14], mental flexibility [F (2, 169) = 4.82, p = .009, ηp² = 0.05], problem-solving [F (2, 169) = 4.77 p = .010, ηp² = 0.05] and inhibition [F (2, 163) = 4.15, p = .017, ηp² = 0.05]. Additionally, significant between-group differences were seen for self-reported problems with EFs [F (2, 124) = 4.38 p = .015, ηp² = 0.07], ADHD symptoms [F (2, 124) = 7.02 p = .001, ηp² = 0.10], and psychological distress [F (2, 124) = 4.11 p = .019, ηp² = 0.06]. Post hoc tests showed that AAS dependents exhibited poorer EFs and reported more psychological distress compared to non-users. CONCLUSION: AAS dependence is associated with executive dysfunction, which might be related to continued abuse despite adverse side-effects and social consequences. Increased awareness of executive dysfunction could have important implications for treatment and rehabilitation.

Preparing for a National Weightlifting Championship: A Case Series.

Travis, SK, Mizuguchi, S, Stone, MH, Sands, WA, and Bazyler, CD. Preparing for a national weightlifting championship: A case series. J Strength Cond Res 34(7): 1842-1850, 2020-This study aimed to characterize psychological, physiological, and performance changes of a high-level female (24.5 years; 53.8 ± 0.3 kg; 155.4 cm) and male (25.8 years; 92.7 ± 1.2 kg; 189 cm) weightlifter over 28 weeks while preparing for a national championship. Body mass, hydration, psychological inventories, serum biomarkers, vastus lateralis muscle cross-sectional area (CSA), and squat jump (SJ) performance were assessed weekly beginning 11 weeks from the competition date. Weightlifting performance goals were met for the female athlete (actual total = 159 kg) but not for the male athlete (actual total = 292 kg). Reductions in vastus lateralis CSA possibly took place the week leading into competition for both athletes. Both athletes reported positive recovery-stress states on the day of competition relative to baseline values. Fluctuations between steroid hormone concentrations and inflammatory markers were unpredictable and inconsistent for both athletes throughout the training program. Unloaded SJ height and rate of force development were the highest on competition day for both athletes. Based on these findings, it is possible for high-level male and female weightlifters to achieve and maintain peak preparedness 3-4 days before competition following a 1-week overreach and 3-week exponential taper, where training volume-load is reduced by half and intensity maintained or slightly increased relative to pretaper values. Furthermore, the short recovery and stress scale and SJ testing seem to be useful tools for sport scientists and coaches when monitoring high-level weightlifters preparing for competition.

Disordered eating behaviours in female physique athletes.

Despite substantial growth in participation rates in physique sports, little is known about the modern day female physique athlete. The extreme physique traits of successful female physique athletes suggest this population may be particularly at risk of developing disordered eating (DE). The aim of this study was to determine if female physique athletes across the main divisions of bikini, fitness, figure and bodybuilding were at risk of DE and to explore possible associated risk factors. Furthermore, we aimed to investigate differences in incidence of DE across divisions given differences in physique requirements. Female physique athletes (n = 348) were recruited using targeted methods and completed an online survey based on validated questionnaires, including the Drive for Thinness, Body Dissatisfaction, and Bulimia subscales of the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI), Pathogenic Weight Control Measures (PWCM), and the Cognitive Dietary Restraint subscale of the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ-CDR). Athletes scoring above the cut off values for one or more of the EDI subscales or engaged in at least one of the most concerning PWCM (binge eating, laxative use, and self-induced vomiting) were considered at risk of DE. Approximately half of the participants were identified with DE (46.6%), independent of division, with 27.3% exhibiting clinical and 19.3% having subclinical DE. Furthermore, approximately half (48.9%) of participants engaged in at least one of the most concerning PWCM within the past three months, with a smaller proportion (5.2%) engaging in all three PWCM. Weak but significant correlations were found between some EDI subscales and reason for sport participation, BMI and body composition goals. Drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction were positively associated with use of PWCM. In conclusion, a high proportion of female physique athletes were identified with DE, with a concerning number of athletes engaging in harmful PWCM.

Specific types of sports and exercise group participation and socio-psychological health in older people.

Older people who engage in sports and exercise in a group render greater benefits for socio-psychological aspects compared to exercising alone. The aim of this study was to identify the prevalence of specific types of sports and exercise groups and the association with self-rated health, depressive symptoms, and frequency of laughter among community-dwelling older people. We used cross-sectional data from the 2016 Japan Gerontological Evaluation Study and analysed 63,465 males and 68,497 females aged ≥65 years. The top three most popular types among males were golf (11.3%), walking (8.4%), and ground golf (6.3%). Among females, the top three were fitness exercises (13.8%), walking (8.3%), and weight exercises (6.2%). After adjusting for potential confounders, engaging in golf with a group was significantly related with excellent self-rated health (prevalence ratio, PR, 1.31 in male and 1.78 in female), low depressive symptoms (PR, 0.70 and 0.71), and a high frequency of laughter (PR, 1.12 and 1.13). Among females, walking displayed a significant relationship with all three characteristics (PR, 1.23, 0.79, and 1.06, respectively). Golf in older males and walking in older females might be the first choice for an effective programme to spread sports and exercise groups within the older Japanese community.

Does Attention Modify Contributions to Heaviness Perception?

Purpose: The current study investigated the effect of attention on heaviness perception and its physiological and kinematic contributions. Method: Participants lifted objects that varied in mass and volume while their muscle activity and movement were recorded. Participants were instructed to pay attention to their arm (internal) or the object (external). Results: While heaviness perception did not change as a function of attention, whether muscle activity and movement combined for perception differed across attention conditions. Specifically, muscle activity and movement combined to significantly predict heaviness perception in the external condition, but not the internal condition. Additionally, movement was more salient for perception in both conditions compared to previous research investigating the contribution of muscle activity and movement to heaviness perception. Conclusion: It is suggested that these results support the constrained action hypothesis, which suggests that adopting an external focus of attention benefits motor task performance and learning, and should be further explored in the context of a theory of haptic perception that suggests that the medium for haptic perception is the multifractal tensegrity structure of the body.

Carbohydrate Loading Practice in Bodybuilders: Effects on Muscle Thickness, Photo Silhouette Scores, Mood States and Gastrointestinal Symptoms.

A common practice among bodybuilders is the use of carbohydrate loading to improve physical appearance during competition, while limited documented data is available about this issue. The aim of the present study was to evaluate muscle thickness, mood states, gastrointestinal symptoms and subjective silhouette assessment following carbohydrate loading in bodybuilders. Twenty-four male bodybuilders were evaluated at the weighing period following three days of carbohydrate depletion (M1), and 24h of carbohydrate loading leading up to the competition (M2), stratified into: no carbohydrate load (NC, n = 9) and carbohydrate loading (CL, n =1 5). The silhouette scale, Brunel mood scale (BRUMS), muscle thickness (ultrasound), circumferences, and gastrointestinal symptoms (GIS) were evaluated at M1 and M2. The NC displayed no differences in muscle thickness and circumferences between M1 and M2. Body mass, muscle thickness (elbow flexors, a combination of biceps brachii/ brachialis muscle, and triceps brachii) and circumferences (chest, hip, thigh, arm, calves, and forearm) increased significantly (p < 0.05) in the CL at M2. There was a significant increase in photo silhouette scores (p < 0.05) in the CL at M2. There was no significant difference in mood states between groups or time. The most reported GIS was constipation: 7/9 (NC) and 9/15 (CL) during M1 and 6/9 (NC), and 5/15 (CL) at M2 with symptoms described as 'moderate' or 'severe'. Diarrhea was reported by 7/15 CL (4/15 as severe). These data suggest that carbohydrate loading may contribute to an acute increase in muscle volume and physical appearance, however, it needs to be better planned to minimize gastrointestinal symptoms in bodybuilders.

Acute Effects of Different Training Loads on Affective Responses in Resistance-trained Men.

The main purpose of the present study was to investigate the acute effects of different training loads on ratings of perceived exertion and discomfort and feelings of pleasure/displeasure in resistance-trained men. Twelve resistance-trained men (26.7±3.5 years, 85.1±17.5 kg, and 174. 9±9.9 cm) performed 3 sets of the bench press, squat on a hack machine, and lat pulldown, until volitional concentric failure in two separate conditions: a moderate load (MOD) consisting of a relative load of 8-12 repetitions maximum (RM), and a light load (LIT) consisting of a relative load of 25-30RM. The session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE), session rating of perceived discomfort (sRPD), and session pleasure/displeasure feelings (sPDF) were assessed after 15 min after the ending of each session. A randomized, counterbalanced, crossover study was performed with 48 h recovery afforded between sessions. Differences between conditions were observed for sRPE and sRPD, in which scores for LIT were greater than MOD (sRPE: MOD=5.5±1.0 vs. LIT=6.4±0.7; sRPD: MOD=6.7±1.7 vs. LIT=8.7±1.0). For sPDF, MOD reported feelings of pleasure (1.2), whereas the LIT presented a feeling of displeasure (-2.3). Results suggest that resistance training performed with a light load until failure induces higher degrees of effort, discomfort and displeasure compared to a moderate load.

The sonic instructor: A music-based biofeedback system for improving weightlifting technique.

In this study, we assumed that correct functional movements for weightlifting can be learned with the help of a music-based biofeedback system. We compared musical feedback with verbal feedback from experienced trainers using two independent groups. The focus was on one specific movement called deadlift. Physical parameters under considerations were the spine (i.e. loss of midline stability resulting in flexion) and the forward displacement of the barbell during the repetitions relative to the mid-foot. We recruited 31 recreational weight lifters (21-42 years of age). Results revealed that both feedback types are effective in improving the movements for deadlift. No significant differences were found across the two feedback types, neither in terms of movement, nor in terms of clarity and motivation. The results suggest that the proposed feedback system is a valid tool for technology-aided training and self-training practices.

Competitive Bodybuilding: Fitness, Pathology, or Both?

The sport of competitive bodybuilding requires an intense regimen of weightlifting and dieting, often aided with muscle-building or fat-burning drugs, and culminating in an on-stage posing competition. Despite these rigorous demands, competitive bodybuilding is popular, with thousands of competitions performed annually around the world. Although many studies have addressed the psychological features of various sports and the athletes who compete in them, few have examined the psychological aspects of bodybuilding. Even fewer studies have specifically examined competitive bodybuilders, as opposed to the much larger group of "recreational" bodybuilders who do not compete. The limited available literature suggests that competitive bodybuilders may show an increased risk for four categories of psychopathology: muscle dysmorphia, eating disorders, abuse of appearance- and performance-enhancing drugs, and exercise dependence. However, in each of these categories, one must carefully distinguish between the planned and dedicated behaviors required for success in the sport, as opposed to frankly pathological behaviors that impair social or occupational function, cause subjective distress, or lead to adverse health consequences. Future work should attempt to better assess the nature and prevalence of these conditions among competitive bodybuilders, with perhaps greatest attention to the issue of drug use.

When Does One Decide How Heavy an Object Feels While Picking It Up?

When lifting an object, it takes time to decide how heavy it is. How does this weight judgment develop? To answer this question, we examined when visual size information has to be present to induce a size-weight illusion. We found that a short glimpse (200 ms) of size information is sufficient to induce a size-weight illusion. The illusion occurred not only when the glimpse was before the onset of lifting but also when the object's weight could already be felt. Only glimpses more than 300 ms after the onset of lifting did not influence the judged weight. This suggests that it takes about 300 ms to reach a perceptual decision about the weight.

Effects of placebo on bench throw performance of Paralympic weightlifting athletes: a pilot study.

BACKGROUND: The aim of the present study was to analyse the effects of placebo on bench throw performance in Paralympic weightlifting athletes. METHODS: The study involved four Paralympic weightlifting male athletes (age: 40.25 ± 9.91 years, weight: 60.5 ± 8.29 kg, height: 1.60 ± 0.15 m) that visited the laboratory in three occasions, separated by 72 h. In the first session, the athletes were tested for bench press one repetition maximum (1RM). The other two sessions were performed in a randomized counter-balanced order and involved bench throw tests performed either after taking placebo while being informed that the capsule contained caffeine or without taking any substance (control). The bench throw tests were performed with loads corresponding to 50, 60, 70 and 80% of the bench press 1RM. RESULTS: According to the results, mean velocity (∆: 0.08 m/s, ES 0.36, p < 0.05) and mean propulsive velocity (∆: 0.11 m/s, ES 0.49, p < 0.05) at 50% of 1RM were significantly higher during placebo than control (p < 0.05). However, there were no difference between control and placebo for 60, 70 and 80% of 1RM (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that placebo intake, when the athletes were informed they were taking caffeine, might be an efficient strategy to improve the performance of explosive movements in Paralympic weightlifting athletes when using low-loads. This brings the possibility of using placebo in order to increase performance, which might reduce the risks associated with ergogenic aids, such as side-effects and positive doping testing.